The history of forest schools Essay Example for Free

The history of forest schools Essay ‘Forest School in the UK may seem a fairly new movement. In reality it is based on a rich heritage of outdoor learning going back at least to the 19th century. Philosophers, naturalists and educators in Europe and the UK such as Wordsworth, Ruskin, Baden Powell, Leslie Paul (who founded the Woodcraft Folk in 1925), Kurt Hahn (who founded Gordon stone and was the inspiration for our first outdoor education centers), Susan Isaacs and the Macmillan sisters all laid the foundations for what is known as Forest School today. During the 1970s and 80s our education system moved toward a more teacher/outcome-centered approach in an attempt to improve numeracy and literacy, in particular, and we had the introduction of the national curriculum. Somewhat in response to this, there was a growth of ‘alternative’ educational models in the 1990s and it is in this context that Forest School emerged. ’ A brief history of the development from the Forest School Association. The Forest School model originates in Scandinavia and involves participants journeying by foot (if possible) to a local woodland environment to learn outdoors on a regular sustained basis. In 1993 a group of childcare students visiting Denmark witnessed the benefits of Forest School for themselves and brought the idea back to Bridgewater College. On returning they devised way to apply forest schools to their childcare center. Since then the idea has grown and Forest Schools are spreading throughout Britain. Margret McMillan was a socialist Christian. She was very interested in education and she fought for reforms to improve the health of young children, wrote several books on nursery education and pioneered a play-centered approach. She was very interested in how children could learn outside and how it benefitted them. It wasn’t until after her life that her thoughts and theories were put into practice, a college was opened in her sister’s name in 1930 and in 1936 the first purpose-built outdoor center was created in memory of Margaret McMillan. Friedrich Frobel was also a pioneer of outdoor learning. Introducing and sustaining the original idea according to which nature and the natural environment had a definite and positive role in the education of children. Frobel coined the word kinder garten, which means children’s garden. Other significant contributors to the outdoor learning movement were Natalie Davis and Susan Isaacs. Davis set up Chelsea open-air nursery in 1927, she handed it over to Isaacs, who wanted to give invigorating and healthy experiences to the children. Isaacs was a keen researcher of principals and new research appearing about how children should learn. â€Å"Today Chelsea Open Air Nursery School and Children’s Centre survives as a fitting and faithful legacy of Susan Isaacs pioneering work. Educationalists from around the world visit the school and are inspired by its wonderful setting, ethos and professional expertise. ’ Forests schools officially began in the Uk in 1993 after a group of students visited Denmark and saw forest schools in action. This was only 20 years ago and today there are at least 25 forest school companies listed, and I dare say that not all forest school practitioners are on the association site. There is also places like Ruskin Mill, who specialise in bush craft and farming activities for young adults, and HillHolt farm in Lincolnshire, which started as an alternative for expelled children, it is now a fully fledged educational centre using many forest school activities, and teaching other outdoor skills for life, with very successful results. Many school and nursery teachers have become forest school leaders and run sessions in their schools. No exact figure is available but I would definitely say forest schools are now becoming mainstream and it’s common place for people to be aware of what forest school is. Locally, in Lincolnshire there are 4 forest schools, and in the South Yorkshire there are another 4 registered forest schools. In Scotland (the coldest part of the UK) they’re a fully outdoor nursery/kindergarten. This embraces forest schools in an extreme way, everyday is a forest school for the children who attend â€Å"Kirsty Licence, 40, a doctor and Alastairs mother, believes the nursery will be an antidote to Britains increasingly sedentary, over-protective culture. Childhood obesity is a big problem, and one of the things is that children spend too long inside. The forest education initiative was set up to basically make people more aware of how important our forests are to us and for people to understand the link between everyday product and our trees. â€Å"Our aim is to help young people understand the sustainable role that trees and timber have in our lives. † The aims of the initiative are achieved through the work of forest schools, conservationists and groundwork, amongst others. The initiative has supported forest schools because of the work they do which takes more and more children into our forests. Forest school can register to be recognised with the Forest Education Initiative. To have financial backing and an official body to be recognised will no doubt have had a positive effect on the uptake and growth of forests schools nationally. The forest school association exists like many other associations to provide a central point for good practice, storing and sharing information for practitioners. Also to communicate a strong clear message of what Forest School is. They also work with other organisations with similar goals, not as competitors but as a team hoping to enlighten people about the importance of our forests. They are also the governing body for forest school qualifications, making the whole operation absolutely professional. Personally I think as time goes on that forest schools will become even more popular. As more people experience a child in the outdoors they will realise how much they flourish and learn in a natural environment. Unfortunately, though it may be a while before the government realises this, we may go to china and back first!

Teenage Mother Case Study

Teenage Mother Case Study Introduction This essay deals with the circumstances and challenges faced by 22 year old Betty, who became pregnant when she was 15, and now lives with Candy, her six year old daughter. Betty has been referred to the social services cell of the local authority for appropriate social work intervention. She has been engaging in bouts of bingeing and has in the recent past been suffering from vomiting, weight loss and amenorrhoea. A brief case overview is provided below, followed by its analysis and its various implications for social work intervention. Case Overview and Analysis Bettys mother left her father and her sisters when they were very young because of problems in dealing consumption of alcohol. The child and her sisters were thereafter sent to a home for children, where they lived for many years. Whilst the children did not have any further contact with their mother, they would occasionally receive visits from their father, who worked in a brewery and also suffered from alcohol related problems. Betty and her sisters spent their childhood in the childrens home, from where they first attended the childrens village school and thereafter went to a comprehensive secondary school near the residence of her father. Betty began to develop truancy tendencies in her early teens and became pregnant from her relationship with an African Caribbean person, when they were both 14. She decided to keep her child who was named Candy, rather than give her up for adoption, and was placed in a foster home situated at a distance from where she had lived for many years. With the childrens home closing down, Bettys sisters, followed by Betty and Candy, came to live with their father. All the children, including Betty and Candy, lived with their father for the next 6 years. Betty first met a social worker when she was 22. She thereafter moved with her daughter to a small flat, which she liked and made efforts to make nice and homely. Whilst shifting to her new home proved to be beneficial for both Betty and candy, the death of her father, which occurred soon after she moved out of his home, traumatised her severely. She suffers from bouts of speaking difficulties, weight loss and vomiting and amenorrhoea. Her social service records reveal that she suffered from speech disorder episodes in her childhood as well. Betty has also spoken to her social worker about her difficult relationship with her daughter Candy. Whilst the child is doing well in school and is liked by people, she behaves very badly with her mother. An investigation of Bettys history reveals that she may well have been neglected during her childhood. Both her father and mother had alcohol related problems. Her mother left home when Betty and her sisters were very young, following which she was placed in a home for children. Child neglect can be defined to be a condition, wherein individuals responsible for taking care of children permit them, either deliberately or because of inattentiveness, (a) to experience suffering that is avoidable, and (b) otherwise fail to provide the environment required for the development of their physical, emotional and mental capabilities. Neglect can be physical, emotional or educational (Butler Gwenda, 2004, p 76). Betty and her sisters were taken in the care of social services when they were young and placed in a childrens home. Whilst their physical needs were met adequately and they were sent first to the village and later to secondary school, it is very possible that they suffered from educat ional and emotional neglect (Grinnell Yvonne, 2008, p 46). They certainly did not have anybody to provide them with emotional or psychological support or to help them with their school work. Educational neglect includes the failure of care takers to acknowledge and correct acts of truancy by children, even as emotional neglect can arise from inattention to the requirement of children for emotional support and sustenance (Ghate Ramella, 2002, p 66). It is evident that conditions in homes for children are unlikely to have emotionally or educationally enriching environments (Ghate Ramella, 2002, p 66). Neglect during childhood can have adverse effects on the physical, social, intellectual and psychological development of young people (Ghate Ramella, 2002, p 68). Studies reveal that neglected children are prone to development of insecure, anxious or disoriented attachments with their care givers (Howe, 2009, p 37). Such lack of security in attachment can lead to hyperactivity, lack of attention and involvement in class and lack of initiative and confidence to work on their own (Howe, 2009, p 37). Child neglect is also associated with greater incidence of substance abuse, delinquent behaviour, and early pregnancy (Howe, 2009, p 37). Betty developed tendencies for truancy, both in her school and in her childrens home, and became pregnant when she was 14 from her relationship with a boy of her age. Teenage pregnancy is widely prevalent in UK, with the country having a highest rate for such pregnancies in all of Europe. Studies reveal that girls from social class V are at greatest risk of becoming teenage mothers. Research evidence also reveals higher incidence of teenage pregnancy in (a) young people in care, (b) young people leaving care, (c) homeless young people, (d) truants and (e) young people involved in crime. Whilst parenthood can certainly be a positive and enriching experience for normal people, it can also bring about many negative consequences for teenage mothers (Duncan, 2007, p 307). Such problems include (a) adverse physical and mental health outcomes, (b) lesser chances of completing education, (c) greater likelihood of living in the households of others, and (d) greater probability of being lone parent (Duncan, 2007, p 307). Teenagers who become parents are known to suffer from greater socio-economic deprivation, low self esteem and greater incidence of sexual abuse (Duncan, 2007, p 307). The children of such parents tend to have lower birth weights, lesser likelihood of being breast fed, greater chances of growing up in lone parent families, and greater probabilities of experiencing poverty, poor quality housing and poor nutrition. Such people also show greater tendencies for smoking and alcohol abuse (Duncan, 2007, p 307). Common problems amongst teenage mothers include depression and anxiety during pregnancy, financial, social and partnership problems and more negative life events (relationship break-ups, parental separation and lack of community and family support). Teenage mothers are more likely to diet or to smoke during pregnancy. The high smoking prevalence amongst people facing social and economic deprivation suggests that smoking may be used as a stress coping mechanism. However, there is a close association between smoking during pregnancy and adverse outcomes such as low birth weight, infant mortality and delays in child development. (DHSSPS, 2004, p 1) Betty, whilst she has lived in a designated childrens home, and has been educated in standard schools, may have suffered from neglect during her childhood and has experienced pregnancy in her early teens. Both these experiences can result in adverse physical, emotional and psychological outcomes. A social work report reveals that she was prone to suffer from speaking difficulties in her childhood, which could well be the outcome of an emotional and mental distress at being separated from her parents. This speech disorder surfaced again when she was 22, very possibly on account of her emotional traumatisation at the death of her father, who had provided her with shelter for 6 years after the closure of her childrens home. Her other ailments namely bingeing, vomiting and amenorrhoea could also be related to her disturbed upbringing and her psychologically disturbed state, which appears to have been aggravated by the death of her father. Methods of Intervention Betty is emotionally and mentally disturbed because of the death of her father and the behaviour of her child, Candy, towards her. Such emotional disturbances appear to have resulted in eating disorders, vomiting and weight loss. Apart from these ailments, Betty is also suffering from amenorrhoea. She needs medical and possibly psychiatric help and should be referred to mental health professionals and the local GP for appropriate support. Bettys basic vulnerability arises from her status as a single parent, her past of a teen mother, her lack of earning capacity and her difficult relationship with her daughter. Such problems could lead to reduction of self esteem, depression and consequent mental and physical ailments. Social work practice in such circumstances should first focus on understanding her case and her background and thereafter formulate appropriate intervention strategies. Social workers must in the first case adopt appropriate anti-discriminatory, anti-oppressive and person centred approaches in dealing with her case (Nash, et al, 2005, p 23).Thompson, (2001, p 7), advances the theory that anti-discriminatory approaches essentially arise from personal, cultural and social (infrastructural) influences that are experienced by individuals over the course of their lives. These influences affect the socialisation of individuals and result in deeply entrenched attitudes that surface unconsciously and influence their actions and behaviour (Thompson, 2001, p 11). Social workers, many of whom come from affluent and educated backgrounds, are very likely to have developed entrenched discriminatory attitudes towards disadvantaged segments of society and could well approach the problems of service users, from different racial, ethnic, social and income backgrounds, with preconceived notions and attitudes (Butler Gwenda, 2004, p 83). Dominelli (2005, p 41) has also time and again emphasised that discrimination is pervasive in UK society and its social work infrastructure. Modern social work theory and practice also recommends the adoption of person centred approaches towards service users. Service users, it is now widely accepted, should be placed at the centre of the social work process; with due regard given to their need for dignity, independence and self determination (Howe, 2009, p 48). Social workers, whilst dealing with Betty, with her history of living in a childrens home, teenage truancy, and teenage pregnancy, can very likely (a) have preconceived notions about her background, upbringing, education and attitudes, (b) take little cognisance of her helpful nature, her love for her father and her affection for her child, and (c) adopt attitudes of I know best condescension in their assessment and intervention practice. It is thus imperative for the social worker dealing with her case to consciously overcome discriminatory attitudes, adopt a person centred approach, communicate with understanding and empathy and involve Betty in all intervention suggestions. The social worker should in these circumstances engage Betty with open ended questions about her problems and difficulties. Betty should be allowed to express herself as completely as possible without interruption in order to obtain a more complete realisation of her physical, emotional and mental strength (Brachmann, 2010, p 1). She should be asked to explain the ways and means in which she has coped with the various crises in her life and asked to explore and discuss her various strengths and weaknesses (Brachmann, 2010, p 1). Such discussions can well help in alleviating her feelings about the difficulties and hopelessness of her situation, enable her to think about positive lines of action and formulate suitable exit strategies (Grinnell Yvonne, 2008, p 55). Betty should be asked to choose the different reasons for her crises, focus on one issue at a time, and thereafter sequentially explore and analyse the different challenges confronting her. Such a strategy will help her to address the different crisis factors and find effective ways to address the diverse challenges (Adams, et al, 2009, p 107). It would thus be possible for her to individually focus on her physical and emotional difficulties, her problems with bringing up her child, and her financial challenges. The social worker should lead Betty in conversations that emphasise non-directive exploration of the various crisis issues (Adams, et al, 2009, p 107). Encouraging her to open up by asking different types of open-ended questions may help in obtaining revelations or in greater realisation of the various issues, which in turn can help her and the social worker in the making of informed choices (Brachmann, 2010, p 1). The social worker, once she expresses something specific or s omething that she would wish to alter, can become more direct in asking her to implement such changes (Howe, 2009, p 53). Betty is now 22 and has brought up her child for 6 years as a teen parent, doing her best at the same time to help as a non earning member in her fathers family. Whilst Betty can no longer be technically classified as a teen parent, she continues to suffer from the vulnerabilities of such people, who are considered to be among the most vulnerable members of British society. Studies consistently reveal that children born to teenage mothers are more likely to have comparatively worse outcomes in terms of physical and mental health and education. Adolescent births are also related to higher levels of mental health difficulties, violence with partners and social exclusion (Coley Chase-Landsdale, 1998, p 152). Contemporary teenage mothers have lesser likelihoods of competing in the job market. With teenage child bearing being automatically disruptive for secondary education, it is far more difficult for such people to complete their education in the more expensive contemporary day enviro nment (Clemmens, 2003, p 94). The children of teenage parents are thus more likely to be economically deprived and socially excluded. When adolescents become parents, their education is likely to be delayed and even discontinued. Their employment opportunities are lesser, their incomes are likely to be low and they are less likely to develop long lasting relationships. Such people often require welfare support for prolonged periods (Duncan, 2007, p 307). Betty, it is evident, suffers from physical and emotional problems. Adequate medical attention needs to be provided to her physical and mental condition in order to ensure that she recovers from the traumatic experience of her fathers death, is able to overcome her eating disorders and develops a stable, enriching and rewarding relationship with her daughter. The UK governments social work policies and infrastructure for teenage mothers provide for a number of intervention programmes (Asmussen Weizel, 2010, p 2). Social workers provide case management support by visiting teen mothers and members of their families in their homes. Such visits help in promoting problem solving behaviours, identifying personal difficulties and challenges and in finding ways and means for overcoming them (Asmussen Weizel, 2010, p 2). They encourage mothers to find jobs and pursue their education further. Case managers also plan and hold meetings with such mothers and their family members, wherein all participants work towards developing appropriate support plans (Asmussen Weizel, 2010, p 2). Social workers help teen mothers by the development of mutual assistance groups, where such people can receive and give assistance between each other. Young mothers like Betty can also be appropriately educated and trained in developing and managing small businesses (Asmussen Weizel, 2010, p 2). They are, after the completion of such training makes them ready to run their businesses, assisted to develop and formulate business plans for their projects. The funding for start up costs for such project is provided after project plans are approved by trainers (Asmussen Weizel, 2010, p 2). Social work programmes also provide education in life skills, which is delivered over 8 weeks in group formats (Asmussen Weizel, 2010, p 7). Such sessions promote the enhancement of knowledge and skills in various areas associated with parenting, social understanding and behaviour management. Leadership development amongst such mothers is promoted by giving them various responsibilities and roles in different types of group activities like planning of social events and development of committees (Asmussen Weizel, 2010, p 9). Studies on these various projects reveal that their use leads to increase in the educational achievements of mothers and lessens the chances of repeat pregnancies. It also enhances their sense of well being and reduces utilisation of illegal substances. Studies on these programmes are however yet to reveal their impact upon child outcomes (Asmussen Weizel, 2010, p 9) The various techniques that can be used by the social worker to make Betty open up and focus on her various challenges have already been discussed before in the course of this essay. The social worker should, in line with such techniques, encourage Betty to think and discuss about her specific challenges, namely (a) overcoming her present physical and mental difficulties, (b) establishing a stable and rewarding relationship with her daughter, (c) furthering her education, (d) increasing her earning capacity and (e) leading a more enriching and socially inclusive life. Open ended questions and discussions over different sessions on each of these issues can help Betty in becoming emotionally more positive and in finding appropriate exit strategies for her different challenges (Butler Gwenda, 2004, p 92). The social worker can help her in discussing various alternatives like (a) medical and psychological health, (b) counselling sessions with her daughter, (c) formulation of programmes for completion of education and / or increase of earning capacity and (d) greater inclusion in social and community life. Appropriate intervention plans can be made after obtaining taking Bettys active agreement on specific action plans. Conclusion This essay concerns the social and economic and challenges faced by 22 year old Betty, who became pregnant at 15 and now lives alone with her six year old daughter. Betty has been engaging in bingeing bouts and is suffering from vomiting, weight loss and amenorrhoea. Bettys mother left the family when the children were very young because of alcohol related problems. She and her sisters were sent to a home for children, where they would occasionally receive visits from their father. Betty and her sisters first attended the childrens village school and thereafter went to a comprehensive secondary school. Betty began to develop truant in her early teens and became pregnant from a relationship with a boy when both of them were 14. Deciding to keep her child, Betty, her child, Candy, and her sisters spent the last 6 years with their father, following which she moved out with her child to their own small home. She was severely traumatised by the death of her father and is concerned about the negative attitude of her child towards her. She now suffers from eating and speech disorders, is losing weight and experiences episodes of amenorrhoea. An analysis of Bettys history reveals that she may well have been neglected during her childhood. Childhood neglect can adversely affect the physical, social, intellectual and psychological development of young people. Early parenthood can also bring negative consequences like adverse physical and mental health outcomes, lesser chances of completing education, greater probability of living in the households of others, and more chances of being lone parents. Such people suffer from greater socio-economic deprivation, low self esteem and greater incidence of sexual abuse. Social work practice, in such circumstances, should first focus on understanding her case and thereafter formulate suitable intervention strategies. Social workers must adopt appropriate anti-discriminatory, anti-oppressive and person centred approaches in dealing with her case. It is imperative for the social worker to deliberately prevail over discriminatory attitudes, adopt a person centred approach, communicate with understanding and empathy and involve Betty in all suggestions. The UK government has a number of social work policies and intervention programmes for young mothers. The social worker should engage Betty with open ended questions about her challenges and difficulties. She should be allowed to express herself freely in order to obtain a fuller understanding of her challenges as well as her physical, emotional and mental strengths. The social worker should discuss different options like (a) her medical and emotional status, (b) engaging in counselling sessions with her daughter, (c) formulation of programmes for completion of her education and / or increase of her earning abilities and (d) ways and means for increasing her inclusion in social and community life. Appropriate intervention plans should be made after obtaining Bettys active agreement on specific intervention programmes.

Smoking Cigarettes :: Argumentative Persuasive Example Essays

Deduction and Induction Analysis of Cigarette Smoking Smoking: Deduction Cigarette smoking causes cancer, which leads to death. Nicotine is one of the many chemicals found in the tobacco plant used in cigarettes. It reacts with the brain resulting in addiction. Nicotine enters the body and is transported to the brain; chemically, it stimulates the brain to produce more adrenaline, which in turn gives the body a surge of energy. One the effects of nicotine lessen, the brain functions are disrupted and therefore it counter acts by sending out signals to obtain more. The craving for the same level of adrenaline during nicotine activity can only increase and thus becomes an addiction. In its natural state, nicotine is a clear liquid but when burned acquires a brown color resembling tar. Cancer is the results of a malfunction in cells. In the working cell cycle, cells that are incorrectly produced or are damaged will end up in the stage of apoptosis or cell death. If there is a malfunction with the p53 gene and it cannot recognize the damage within a cell, the cell does not go into apoptosis and is left to replicate. Over time the damage cells proliferate in such a great number and do not died resulting in a mass or â€Å"clump† of cells that is dangerous to the tissue. This clump of cells interferes with the function of the tissue, which can lead to the death of healthy cells surrounding them. This area is known as the cancer site. Smoking cigarettes introduces the chemical nicotine into the body, raising the adrenaline levels to over work the body. The tolerance level of nicotine increases, as more of the chemical is consume which leads to addiction. The addiction of this chemical increases the amount of cigarettes smoked. The inhalation of the chemical along with other harmful substances that are trapped within the cells walls. The substances disturb the normal function of the cells and damage the p53 gene. These damage cells do not go through apoptosis and proliferates endlessly. The large amount of tissues affects and kills the working cells thereby damaging the tissue. Therefore, smoking cigarettes is the direct caused of death due to lung cancer. Smoking: Induction   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The NIDA quotes that â€Å"Tobacco kills more than 430,000 U.S. citizens each year-more than alcohol, cocaine, heroin, homicide, suicide, car accidents, fire, and AIDS combined.†[1] Many researches have found that the tobacco substances found in cigarettes are carcinogens that cause cancers.

We Must Put an End to Corporal Punishment Essay -- Corporal Punishment

There was an old woman who lived in a shoe She had so many children she didn't know what to do She gave them some broth, Without any bread Whipped them all soundly, and sent them to bed (Mother Goose). Â   All across American households, adults whip, spank, paddle, and swat children as a form of acceptable punishment and as deterrent to unwanted behaviors. These actions are considered corporal punishment, and can be defined numerous ways. The American Public Health Association defines corporal punishment as "the infliction of bodily pain as a penalty for behavior disapproved by the punisher"(American Public Health Association). Similarly, the American Medical Association describes it as "the use of force with the intention of causing a child to experience pain, but not injury, for the purpose of correction or control of the child's behavior"(American Medical Association). No matter how it is defined, spanking is a practice that is so widely accepted in American culture that it is even celebrated in this popular Mother Goose children's rhyme. Although many argue that this type of punishment has been effective ever since the "good old days" where kids learned forcefully how to behave, th ere is a plethora of evidence that shows emphatically that corporal punishment never was, is, or will be an effective means of discipline. In fact, various credible studies and researchers have concluded that corporal punishment causes many undesirable and negative effects on children. Consequently, numerous cases prove that reducing this type of punishment has measurable benefits. Â   Â   Most research concludes that spanking does result in immediate compliance, but according to Jordan Riak, author and founder of the... ...ainst Children: A Challenge for Society. New York: Walter de Gruyter & CO., 1996. Muller, Judy. "No Spanking Zone Proposed." ABCNEWS.com Plutarch. The Education of Children. Vol. 2. Moralia, Ancient Greece. "Policy Resolution on Corporal Punishment." American Public Health Association. November 7, 1979. Riak, Jordan. Plain Talk About Spanking: Parents and Teachers Against Violence in Education. Alamo, CA, 1992. Revised in 1999. "Spanking Makes Children Violent, Antisocial." American Medical Association News Update. August 13, 1997. Straus, Murray A. and Paschall, Mallie J. Corporal Punishment by Mothers and Cognitive Development of Children: A Longitudinal Study. http://www.ung.edu?frl?cp51japa.htm UN: Committee on Rights of Child Concludes Eighteenth Session. Geneva, 18 May to 5 June., M2 Press WIRE, 06-09-1998.

Kants Theses: Unknowability and Non-Spatiotemporality :: Kant Argumentative Argument Papers

Kant's Theses: Unknowability and Non-Spatiotemporality In the present paper is analyzed the relationship between Kant's theses concerning unknowability and non-spatiotemporality of things in themselves. First of all, it is argued that even by taking for granted that the Unknowability Thesis does not contradict the Non-Spatiotemporality Thesis, because the former can be thought as a consequence of the latter, this is not enough to avoid another problem, namely, that the Non-Spatiotemporality Thesis is not sufficient to abolish the possibility of thinking consistently of space and time as empirical or material. It is also remembered that this point has already been partially envisaged for the first time by H.A. Pistorius (and later by A. Trendelenburg) and raised as the objection of the "third possibility" or "neglected alternative." Furthermore, it is maintained that although Kant tries to eliminate this possibility in the Metaphysical Expositions of Space and Time (but not in the Antinomies), by attempting to prove that space and time ar e only formal necessary conditions of sensibility, he cannot do it successfully. Hereafter it is argued that his circumstance is not due to the above objection itself, but to another difficulty that can only be grasped through the analysis of Kant's main argument in the Metaphysical Expositions of Transcendental Aesthetic. Ultimately, in order to show this difficulty, it is argued first that insofar as the Non-spatiotemporality Thesis supposes the validity of the Singularity Thesis, and this supposes the validity of the Apriority Thesis, the whole force of proof reposes on this latter. Secondly, it is shown that, despite his effort, Kant could not justify satisfactorily his claim to the formal apriority of space and time because of his failure to demonstrate necessarily the Apriority Thesis. We have already given a detailed account of this question in another place, (1) so that here we will try to explain only one of the main arguments. The reason why we have chosen the following one among the others reposes on the fact that it involves an almost unperceived supposition on Kant's part, whose possible implications we would like to explore. The first thing to be said is that Kant says we cannot know the things as they are in themselves, because in this case they would be essentially neither spatial nor temporal ones. We could surely ask: how can Kant say that, while maintaining simultaneously the Unknowability Thesis? How can he say that things in themselves are neither spatial nor temporal, if he admits that they are unknowable for us?

Hunting laws essay Essay

Why are people likely to break hunting laws, whereas the people with the license are the ones that suffer? Over the years people have violated hunting laws. There has been little research for motivations for poaching. Illegal taking of wildlife is a serious problem in today’s society. Questions such as these prompted are discussed in the two following articles: â€Å"Illegal Hunting and Angling the Neutralization of Wildlife,† by Stephen L. Eliason, and an article by Bob Hood â€Å"Rules of the Game. † At first it may appear that only way these two writers might meet in  common ground would be in a head on collision. Nevertheless after reading their articles more carefully, one can realize that Eliason and Hood are actually saying two different things. Initially, these articles seem to be very little in common. Although their titles, for example, convey the same image: Eliasons aggressive â€Å"Illegal Hunting and Angling the Neutralization of Wildlife† versus Hoods passive â€Å"Rules of the Game. † Their subject matters and these authors reasons for writing make them very dissimilar, Eliason states how the very impact  of poaching has affected our society by contrast Hood is merely stating the facts of our local Texas game laws. Between Eliasons use of his method of trying to inform the reader what poaching can do and Hoods general statements on how to follow Texas game warden laws, readers have difficulty recognizing a neutral meeting ground between these persistent writers. Villasenor 2 This strong insistence by each writer that hunting laws should be followed, however, helps the readers see the two differences between these two articles. For both authors, the proposition that â€Å"hunting laws should be followed† is their way of trying to reach out to the general public. For instance Hood states local Texas hunting laws and gives you basic information on how they should be followed. Eliason however is stating on how poaching affects the country as a whole and has enough data and facts to prove his cause. Regarding the similar topic though, we find Hood and Eliason expressing very different views. According to Hood he is stating the dos and don’ts every hunter should know before  hinting predators and non-game animals. Eliason cites a much more informative article stating the affects of the ecological impact of poaching and much more evidence to support his view point. Although Eliason and Hood write about the differences in hunting laws, readers can not see a common ground. Upon close analysis, their articles reveal more then several points of dissimilarity. Both writers have two totally different viewpoints about hunting laws. Readers can recognize that Eliasons and Hoods statements prove to be different.

Disease Control and Prevention

There are three basic approaches to preventing and controlling transmission of diseases: a) vector control (if applicable), b) personal protection, and c) vaccination (â€Å"How Vaccines Prevent Disease†). The CDC has expanded existing domestic and international community-based control programs for preventing infectious diseases. New preventive projects are being evaluated, including preventives of antimicrobial resistance, food borne and water borne illness and others.â€Å"Prevention is better than cure† – we always hear this statement whenever a new disease outbreak occurs to a community or a region. Disease prevention is indeed far more economical than treating the disease itself. One of the most practiced is the use of vaccines (Overturft). Prevention and control of all non-vaccine preventable diseases must rely on vector control and personal protection. Vector control however is seldom supported as a n independent program.Rather, it is in general incorporat ed into a larger prevention program that engages active surveillance for the disease and the vectors, personal protection, diagnosis and management of the disease and vector control. The purpose of surveillance is to help prevent disease by providing a mechanism for early caution or epidemic action, thus allowing for public health action. This is more than ever true for vector borne diseases such as dengue that often cycle silently in an area with intermittent epidemics that may cause significant morbidity and mortality.As a result, it is significant to have active laboratory based surveillance for infectious diseases to keep an eye on transmission even though there may be no evident disease in humans or domestic animals (Gersovitz and Hammer). To manage the condition, and the global nature of the diseases, the World Health Organization has responded by expanding its surveillance and other operations to meet the challenge of emerging and recurrent infectious diseases (â€Å"Infecti ous Diseases†). Disease Control and Prevention In a family which has a history of birth defect cases, it is difficult to accept the truth that your future child has a greater risk of having a birth defect. Prevention of the possible birth defects is the most common advice given to the family by many doctors. The proper and enough absorption of folic acid give many expectant mothers low risk of having babies with birth defects. Not all birth defects are fatal or untreatable like many parents believe. Many improved medications on birth defects are available and guaranteed to prevent having babies with birth defect.Some are treatment for babies that still in the womb. The most important thing for the treatment is to be able for the mother to understand the risk factors and how she can prevent having a baby with a birth defect. Knowledge about Birth Defects A birth defect is an abnormality of structure, function or metabolism that is present at birth. This abnormality leads to mental or physical disability or can lead to death. Many birth defects are known ranging from minor to serious. They are considered the leading cause of death of many babies in their first year of life.According to the Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), about 120,000 babies are born each year suffering from birth defects in the United States alone. Causes of Birth defects About 60% of the birth defect cases have unknown causes. Environmental and genetic factors are also causes of birth defects (Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 352-356). Genetically inherited birth defects occur when one or both parents pass along a defective gene to the child. Genes carry thread-like structures called chromosomes that determine individual characteristics and feature (Millensky, 1989, 201-267).Any faulty or missing gene can cause birth defect. Some of the birth defects can only occur if both parents are carrier of the defect. Even healthy parents can have effective genes and pass this on to their child. This kind of event is called the recessive inheritance. Recessive diseases are more severe than dominant diseases. Some examples of birth defects that are caused by recessive inheritance are sickle cell anemia, Tay-Sachs disease, phenylketonuria (PKU) and cystic fibrosis (Millensky, 1989, 201-267).If only one parent passes along the recessive gene, the normal gene received from the other parent will prevent the disease. However, that child will be a carrier of the disease. The carrier of the disease has a 25% chance to have the disease if the other parent is also a carrier. Birth defects, such as Down syndrome, can also be caused by too many chromosomes or damaged chromosomes. Babies with Down syndrome have varying level of mental retardation and heart defects.On the other hand, environmental causes of birth defects include poor prenatal care, exposure to chemicals or radiation and use of drugs and alcoholic drinks during pregnancy. Any substance that can cause any abnormal development is termed â€Å"teratogenâ⠂¬â„¢ (Benneth, 2006, 217-230). Certain infections can result in birth defects when the woman deals with it during her pregnancy. About 40,000 babies a year are born with a viral infection known as cytomegalovirus (CMV) (Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 352-356). These babies develop serious disabilities including mental retardation and loss of vision and hearing.Some of the other infections that can cause birth defects include syphilis, toxoplasmosis, Venezuelan equine encephalitis and parvovirus (Benneth, 2006, 217-230). In unusual cases, having a chicken pox during pregnancy can also cause birth defect. Much absorption of alcohol during pregnancy can cause fetal alcohol syndrome. This syndrome includes mental retardation, low birth weight and heart problems. If alcohol has severe cause, so is the improper use of drugs. Drugs that can cause birth defects include tetracycline, sulfa drugs, hormone supplements and recreational drugs such as cocaine and LSD.Some birth defects, such as neural tube defects and cleft lip and palate are considered multifactorial birth defects which are caused by a combination of environmental and genetic factors. Other causes of birth defects are Rh disease. This disease is the incompatibility of the mother’s and baby’s positive and negative blood factors (3). Common Birth Defects The most common defects in the United States are the Cleft lip or palate and Down syndrome. Each year, about 6,800 and 5,500 babies are born with cleft lip/ palate and Down syndrome respectively (Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 352-356).Effects of cleft lip/ palate include problems in eating, speech and language. Cleft lip/ palate are not dangerous and surgical repair of the cleft can be done when the child reach the right age and size and is in good health to tolerate surgery. The most common problem encountered by children with clefts is hear infections. The cleft allows fluid and germs to enter the ears more easily that norma l that causes the infections in the ear. The occurrence of cleft lip/ palate can also cause more cavities leading to dental problems, thus, dental checkup is recommended by doctors.Moreover, statistics show that about 1,900 babies are born with a serious heart defect called transposition of the great arteries each year (Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 352-356). Though advances in surgery developed the outlook for affected babies, heart defects still remain as the leading cause of birth defect infant deaths (Martin, 619-622). Doctors and many experts can not explain the real causes of abnormality in the heart, although both genetic and environmental factors are considered.Another defect that is caused by both genetic and environmental factors (including insufficient amount of folic acid) is the Spina Bifida or open spine. According to the Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), about 1,300 cases occur each year. Other common birth defects include musculoskeletal defec t (arm and leg defect), gastrointestinal defects, and eye defects (). Martin, 619-622 Birth Defect of Body Chemistry Birth defects of body chemistry are not visible, but they can be harmful and worst, fatal. In 2002, about 3,000 babies were born with defects affecting body chemistry.A recessive genetic disease is the common cause of disorder of body chemistry. The inability of cells to produce enzymes or proteins that are needed to carry substance from one place to another to change certain chemicals to another is the main cause of this disease. An example is Tay – Sachs disease. Affected babies lack an enzyme needed to break down certain fatty substances in the brain cells. These fatty substances destroy brain cells that may result to blindness, paralysis and even death at the age of 5. Another example is phenylketonuria (PKU).In this disease, the baby cannot process a part of protein which builds up and damage the brain. Birth Defect Testing There are two types of testing a vailable in many hospitals and health centers to look for possible occurrence of birth defects. The first one is the screening test, which is able to look whether the baby is likely to have birth defects. If the screen test is positive, the second teat which is the diagnostic test should be performed. The rule of the diagnostic test is to confirm or rule out the possible problem that was detected by the screen test.Screening tests The processes involve in performing screen test that looks for Down syndrome are the nuchal fold ultrasound and a blood test. The ultrasound test uses sound waves to measure the thickness of the fetus’ neck while the blood test is intended to measure the levels of beta-hCG and a protein called pregnancy- associated plasma protein. Another screening test that is done between 15-20 weeks of pregnancy is the maternal serum triple or quadruple screening test. These tests check the amounts of three or four substances in a pregnant woman’s blood.Es timation of the chance of the fetus to have Down syndrome or other health problems is done after these blood tests. The quad screen on the other hand, check the substances (alpha-fetoprotein, and unconjugated estriol) and the level of hormone inhibin A. The doctors estimate the tendency of a woman to have a child with birth defects or other health problems through the data provided by the tests along with the age of the woman and other certain factors. Ultrasound on the other hand is a test that shows the development of the baby.This is usually done during the 18th and 20th week of pregnancy. Ultrasound can be used to screen some chromosomes with problems and find structural problems of the heart, spine, abdomen and other parts of the body. Diagnostic test Doctors usually used Chorionic villus sampling (CVS) to look at cells in the placenta. In this test, a sample of chorionic villus cells is collected by putting a small tool into the uterus through the vagina or by putting a needle through the belly into the uterus. This test can find many family diseases such as hemophilia and sickle cell disease.Another test under diagnostic is Amniocentesis which looks for many chromosomal problems by looking at the cells in the amniotic fluid. This test can find neural tube defects such as Spina bifida. Newly- born babies can also be tested, with the permission of the parents, for possible birth defects. Usually, all states perform PKU and congenital hypothyroidism on all the babies. The tandem mass spectroscopy is a new technique used by many state to newborn babies. This technique provides many features that screens for many disorders of metabolism on a small blood sample. PreventionThere are many ways of reducing the risk of a woman having a baby with birth defect. These ways should be remember and should be take into consideration by many women who wants to have a healthy with no physical or mental defects. One important thing to remember is the preconception visit wi th the health care provider. The health provider identifies the health conditions, such as high blood pressure and diabetes, which may cause risk in pregnancy. The provider can advice on lifestyle factors, such as quitting smoking and alcohol drinking that can cause risk in pregnancy.The medication intake of the woman is also check by the health provider to make sure that the medication is safe to pregnancy. The visit to health providers is crucial to women with chronic health problems, such as diabetes and high blood pressure. A great example is the woman which have diabetes has more likely to have a baby with birth defect compare to the woman who is not diabetic. Controlling the blood sugar levels of the woman starting before pregnancy can give low risk of having a baby with serious birth defects (11). This advice can be provided by the health care providers.Another thing that can be done by the health provider during the preconception visit is to see whether the vaccinations of t he woman are up to date. If the woman has no vaccines against chickenpox and rubella, she has to be vaccinated before pregnancy. In this way, possible risk of birth defect can be lower against woman with no vaccines. Vaccinated woman should wait for a month after being vaccinated before trying to become pregnant. All women should also know their health history including that of their partner and their family. With this, the provider can identify risk factors for inherited genetic conditions.The usual thing that the provider does when this case occurs is to refer the couples to genetic counselor that can explain the risk of birth defects and provide them assistance in conducting proper tests. Pregnant woman or woman who is planning to get pregnant should avoid any alcohol absorption, smoking and intake of drugs. The woman should not take any medication over the counter without making sure that this medication is safe for pregnant women. All women who could become pregnant should take a daily multivitamins containing folic acid.Studies show that proper intake of folic acid during early pregnancy will provide low risk of having a baby with neural tube defects (Spina bifida). Folic Acid to Prevent Birth Defects Folic acid is a synthetic form of folate which is a b vitamin found in a variety of foods. Folate is needed both before and in the first weeks of pregnancy and can help reduce the risk of having babies with common birth defects such as neural tube defects, which affect the brain and spinal cord. Neural tube defects can occur in an embryo before a woman realizes she is pregnant.This is the reason why it is important for all women age 15 to 45 to include folate in their balanced diet. With this, women who will get pregnant reduce their risk of having a baby with defect of the brain or spinal cord. New technologies were developed to include folate in many food supplements. The Food and Drug Administration requires food manufacturers to fortify enriched grain p roducts with folic acid. In this way, women can get sufficient amount of folic acid even in breads and fortified grains such as enriched pasta, rice, waffles and cereal bars. Other ways for pregnant women to have sufficient amount of folic acid are as follows:1) Eat fruits, dark-green leafy vegetables, dried beans and peas, and other foods that are natural sources of folate, 2) Eat folic acid-fortified enriched cereal grain products and breakfast cereals, 3) Take a food supplement containing folic acid. Nutrition information indicated on the labels of many food and dietary supplements can guide many women in identifying the amount of folic acid they are obtaining. Neural Tube Birth Defects The technical names of the two major neural tube birth defects reduced by adequate folate intake are anencephaly and Spina bifida.With proper medical treatment, most babies born with Spina bifida can survive to adulthood. But they may require leg braces, crutches, and other devices to help them wa lk. Other maternal factors also may contribute to the development of neural tube defects. Among these include the following: 1) use of certain ant seizure medications, 2) severe overweight, 3) family history of neural tube defects, 4) prior neural tube defect-affected pregnancy, 5) fever during early pregnancy and 6) diabetes. Studies about Folate In the 1950’s, scientist first suggested a connection between neural tube birth defects and diet.This incidence has always been higher in low socioeconomic groups in which women may have poorer diets. Another study looked at folic acid intake in Hungarian women. The evidence indicated that mothers who had never given birth to babies with neural tube defects and who took a multivitamin and mineral supplement with folic acid had less risk in subsequent pregnancies for having babies with neural tube defects than women given a placebo. Another study conducted by the U. S. Public health service in September 1992 resulted to a data that s hows that all women of childbearing age capable of becoming pregnant consume 0.4 mg of folate daily to reduce the risk of having a pregnancy with Spina bifida. This value corresponds to FDA’s Daily Value for folic acid, which is 400 micrograms for non-pregnant women. On the other hand, the Department of Agriculture said that many women between 19 and 50 consume much less than 400 micrograms of folate a day. Where to obtain Folic Acid Folate occurs naturally in a variety of foods, including liver, dark-green leafy vegetables such as collards, turnip greens, and Romaine lettuce, broccoli and asparagus, citrus fruits and juices.Folate can also be obtained from dietary supplements, such as folic acid tablets and multivitamins with folic acid, and from fortified breakfast cereals. Certain information on food and dietary supplement labels can help women spot foods containing substantial amounts of folate. The exact amount of folic acid is indicated in the label’s nutrition f acts panel. Some food and dietary supplement labels may claim that their product has sufficient amount of folic acid that reduce risk of having babies with birth defects. The products that claim this must: 1) provide 10 percent or more of the daily value for folic acid per serving;2) not contain more than 100 percent of the daily value for vitamins A and D per serving because high intakes of these vitamins are associated with other birth defects; and 3) List on the label’s Nutrition or Supplement facts panel the amount by weight in micrograms. This claim about folate is supported by the studies and statistics have been discussed but these alone will not ensure a healthy baby with no birth defects. Not only folate intake, but genetics is one of the factor that affect the pregnancy and providing risk to have babies with defects. Women have options for reaching the folate intake goal.They can attain this both before and during pregnancy by having a healthy balanced diet. The com bination of having proper intake of folic acid will ensure that women have low risk of having babies with birth defects. References American Academy of Pediatrics. Cytomegalovirus, in Pickering, L. K. (ed. ), Red Book: 2003 Report of the Committee on Infectious Diseases, 26th edition. Elk Grove Village, IL: American Academy of Pediatrics, 259-262. Benneth, K. A. Fetal Surgery for Myelomeningocele, In Wyszynski. Neural Tube Defects from Origin to Treatment. New York City, Oxford University Press, 2006, 217-230.Birth Defects. Retrieved May 18, 2008, from Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Spina bifida and Anencephaly Before and after Folic Acid Mandate, 1995-1996. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, volume 53, number 17, 362-365. Children , Youth and Women’s Health Service. Alcohol- Effects on Unborn Children. Retrieved May 20, 2008, from Department of Human Service. Birth Defects in Victoria in 2003 and 2004. Retrieved May 18, 2008, from http://www.betterhea lth. vic. gov. au/bhcv2/bhcarticles. nsf/pages/Birth_defects_in_Victoria_2003_to_2004 Department of Health and Human Services, Center for Diseases Control and Prevention. Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Diseases. Retrieved May 20, 2008, from http://www. cdc. gov/ncbddd/fas/fasask. htm Martin, J. A. , et al. Annual Summary of Vital Statistic. Pediatrics, Volime115, number 3, 619-634. Millensky, Aubrey. (1989). Genetic Disorders and the Fetus. 3rd edition, 201-267. New York: Plenum Press. (1995)Tropical Pediatrics and Environmental Child Health, Vol. 23, number 1, 4-10.